FHWA Course on Bicycle and Pedestrian Transportation
Lesson 1
The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility
1.1 Purpose
This lesson explores the history of community design and its effect on bicycle
and pedestrian travel. It explains the intricate relationship between transportation
systems and land use, and how this relationship has evolved in the United States.
This session also discusses the importance of planning for non-motorized transportation
modes as viable alternatives to the use of private automobiles, as it relates
to quality of life, economic factors, health, safety and welfare. Finally, the
lesson explores the new emphasis on bicycle and pedestrian planning that has
resulted from national legislation and grassroots support in local communities.
1.2 How Cities Grow: An Historical Perspective
Perhaps more than any other factor, transportation modes have influenced the
way cities grow and the forms they take. Before the advent of the automobile,
cities were more compact and smaller in terms of area and population.
Travel between cities was arduous. Transport of goods and materials was limited,
generally, to short distances. People walked, rode horses or burros, or traveled
in animal-drawn carts. Trips for work, shopping, socializing, and business were
limited to walking distance for most people.
The introduction of the bicycle was a major innovation and substantially extended
the range people could travel. Even today, the bicycle is a major mode of transportation
in some countries of the world, such as China. It is used to haul heavy loads,
pull trailers, and provide everyday transport. In these countries, the cost
of driving is prohibitive for the average citizen. Per capita income is low
and the price of motor vehicle fuel and services is very high. Studies have
shown that as per capita income rises, people switch to private motor vehicle
ownership and the extent of walking and bicycling decreases.
In
the United States, 20th century cities reflect the influence of motor vehicles
as the dominant transportation mode.
In the United States of the 20th century, cities reflected the influence of
the motor vehicle as the dominant transportation mode. Although many cities
have historic city centers, which date from pre-auto days, density, land use
mixes, pedestrian scale and architectural "quaintness" are not replicated
in newer areas. In central cities, they are preserved and showcased as relics
of earlier times.
People visit them for the unusual experience of leaving their cars behind and
walking around. Only within the confines of large, modern suburban shopping
malls can they experience anything like this close to home.
People usually get in their cars to go to school, to work, or to buy groceries.
They drive to health clubs and exercise. They drive out of town to go hiking.
They carry bicycles on their cars to meet friends and go for a bike ride.
A lot of this is just plain habit. People don't think about walking or bicycling
as being easy to do. Some of it, however, is a response to:
- Cities that concentrate all commercial development at major intersections,
and that "buffer" these uses from nearby homes in ways that may
screen out the lights and noise, but that also prevent pedestrian access.
People can walk or bike to the shopping center, but only if they travel far
out of their way and use major arterial streets. Under these conditions, mothers
hesitate to send little Susie to the store on her bicycle for a loaf of bread.
- Cities with subdivision ordinances and street design standards that require
wide streets and sometimes do not require sidewalks. The concept of "traffic
calming"-where motor traffic within neighborhoods is slowed and put on
an equal footing with non-motorized street users-is considered a somewhat
dubious innovation.
- It isn't easy to use public transportation in suburban locations. Effective
public transit requires a higher density of users. Suburban schedules provide
service at infrequent intervals. It is usually faster to drive than to take
the bus.
- Streets are designed without giving serious consideration to their potential
use by bicyclists and pedestrians. The possibility of someone actually walking
around outside the neighborhood is not always accommodated in design. Too
often, bridges, underpasses, and roadways do not include sidewalks and other
facilities that make walking easier. Street cross-sections, signal actuation,
median designs, and maintenance practices do not often account. Even where
special lanes or other facilities are not provided, modest improvements can
be made to facilitate bicycle and pedestrian travel. Often, the improvements
also result in improved traffic operations.
- Often, barriers to bikes and pedestrians are put up because designers just
don't stop to think. Bikes and pedestrians are generally not allowed at drive-up
windows for bank tellers, restaurants, dry cleaners, and similar establishments.
They have to go inside through another entrance. Parking garages may allow
direct access into adjoining office buildings... but what if the pedestrian wants
to park a bicycle... or walk up a ramp to the street? Construction zones may
put pedestrians and bicyclists at risk. Snow removal may pile snow along the
curb, forcing bicyclists to the middle of traffic lanes. The list goes on
and on.
- Suburban land use planning encourages low density and separation of land
use types. Employment centers are separate from residential areas; esidential
developments are predominantly low-density, single-family. Buffer zones with
townhouses, patio homes, and garden apartments may separate the subdivisions
from offices or shopping. Land is relatively cheap and developers can provide
an affordable version of the "American Dream."
- Suburban streets are newer, wider, usually built for higher-speed traffic
than they are in older parts of town. Speed limits are higher. Traffic is
lighter and so people can zip around easily at about 10 miles per hour over
the speed limit. People perceive these streets as dangerous for bicycling
and they lack the skills and confidence to ride on them.
- Over time, cities have tended toward larger blocks of land, fewer small
streets and lanes, and aggregation of land uses. Think about it. Every time
a pedestrian comes to a corner, he or she has the opportunity to change directions,
to enjoy a different view and browse along a different street facade. Long,
continuous blocks diminish the number of choices. Many small blocks have more
"surface area" than a few large ones... more windows to look in, more
doors, more architectural variety.
Streets should be designed with serious consideration to their potential
use by bicyclists and pedestrians.
Allan Jacobs, Chair of the Department of City and Regional Planning at the
University of California at Berkeley, presented an intriguing look at the phenomenon
at the 1989 Pedestrian Conference in Boulder and later in his book, Great
Streets. Jacobs' examined intersections as variables that make significant
contributions to the "walkability" of cities. Jacobs prepared diagrams
showing typical one-mile-square areas of cities throughout the world - all on
the same scale to allow easy comparison (see examples, drawings represent 1square
mile).
Venice, Italy 1,500 intersections per square mile
Rome, Italy 500 intersections per square mile (Downtown) |
Los Angeles 160 intersections per square mile
Irvine, California 15 intersections per square mile |
SOURCE: Great
Streets
Suburban land use planning encourages separation of land use, such as
in this housing development.
He asked people to look at these and tell him which diagram looked like it
represented a place where they would like to be dropped off to spend an afternoon
walking (the cities were unidentified). People selected areas where blocks were
small, with streets that did not follow a regular, grid alignment.
Jacobs also noted that street patterns tend to become simplified over time.
In central Boston, in the 1890's, there were more than 430 intersections and
276 city blocks. Now, there are about 260 intersections and 170 city blocks.
The blocks have become larger; there are fewer businesses and people are walking
less. Is there a relationship? (Pedestrian and Bicyclist
Safety and Accommodation Participant Workbook, FHWA-HI-96-028, 1996)
1.3 Modern Suburban Travel
Most modern suburban communities in the United States are not designed for
bicycle and pedestrian travel. This was not always the case. In communities
across the country that were built prior to 1950, there are remnants of walkable,
bikable streets where destinations are closer to residential areas. In fact,
many of these older neighborhoods are the hottest real estate property in town.
More and more people are beginning to appreciate well-designed communities such
as these, where bicycling is enjoyable and the streets are lined with trees
and sidewalks (the trend toward neo-traditional neighborhood design reflects
this-see Lesson 6). The following provides one view of how suburban residential
design has changed in America:
"Over the last 40 years, as automobiles replaced streetcars, the need
for locating houses close to the streetcar stop disappeared. Retail business
concentrated near the residential subdivisions and apartment complexes. . .
Curbs and sidewalks, symbols of a pedestrian and streetcar-oriented world, became
expansive and unnecessary features in this new, low-density environment. House
lots became wider to accommodate garages, and houses themselves were set back
from the street to reduce the noise and nuisance of passing cars."
(Richard K. Untermann, Linking Land Use and Transportation,University
of Washington, 1991)
Research has shown that even low to moderate levels of exercise can have tremendous benefits.
1.4 Benefits of Bicycling and Walking
Increased levels of bicycling and walking would result in significant benefits
in terms of health and physical fitness, the environment, and transportation-related
effects. Research has shown that even low to moderate levels of exercise, such
as regular bicycling or walking, can reduce the risk of coronary heart disease,
stroke, and other chronic diseases; help reduce health care costs; contribute
to greater functional independence in later years of life; and improve quality
of life at every stage. A recent British Medical Association study concluded
that the benefits in terms of life years gained from the increased physical
activity of bicycling far outweigh any possible negative effects in life-years
lost from injuries or fatalities.
Replacing automobile trips with non-motorized and non-polluting bicycling or
walking trips would yield significant environmental benefits. According to Plan
B, The Comprehensive State Bicycle Plan for Minnesota, public savings from reduced
pollution, oil importation, and congestion costs alone have been estimated at
between 5 and 22 cents for every automobile-mile displaced by bicycling or walking.
Increased use of these non-motorized transportation modes can help urban areas
reduce their levels of ozone and carbon monoxide to meet air quality standards
required under the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments.
Efforts to facilitate bicycling and walking can also result in more general
transportation benefits besides offering additional travel options for those
who are unable to drive or who choose not to drive for all or some trips. Roadway
improvements to accommodate bicycles, such as the addition of paved shoulders,
have been shown to reduce the frequency of certain types of motor vehicle crashes.
Urban area congestion can be reduced. Measures to reduce vehicle speeds, which
can encourage greater pedestrian activity in residential or downtown shopping
and business areas, also impact positively on motor vehicle safety. Greenways
along waterways, ailway lines, or other public rights-of-way yield recreational,
educational, environmental, and aesthetic benefits in addition to providing
corridors for walking and bicycling transportation. A general enhancement of
the "livability" of our cities parallels a truly intermodal transportation
system in which bicycling and walking are valuable components.
Given these many benefits, it is not surprising that a recent Harris Poll showed
that while 5 percent of respondents currently walk or bicycle as their primary
means of transportation, two-and-a-half times this number would prefer to meet
their transportation needs by walking or bicycling if better facilities were
available. Survey results may overestimate actual behavior, but they do indicate
areas to be addressed.(National Bicycling and Walking Study,
FHWA Publication No. FHWA-PD-94-023, 1991)
1.5 Government
Commitment and Support Support for bicycling and walking must be found within
the Federal Government, and State and local government offices. Whereas individuals
and private organizations can accomplish much in increasing public awareness,
identifying needs, etc., it is primarily government that is responsible for
creating safer and more appealing places to bicycle and walk. This is accomplished
not only through direct improvements to the roadway environment, but also through
planning, policymaking, and other government activities. Support and commitment
at every level of government are thus the keys to significant increases in the
use of bicycling and walking as modes of transportation.
As noted in FHWA's 1991 National Bicycling and Walking
Study, the U.S. Federal Government is firmly committed to supportibg bicycling
and walking. The Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA)
made significant additional commitments to the future of bicycling and walking
transportation in the United States.
Multi-use trails have been built as part of major highway improvement
projects in Florida.
States responded to the challenges of the ISTEA legislation, and many are already
ahead of its requirements. As mandated, bicycle and pedestrian coordinators
have been identified in all 50 States, and a number of States are in the process
developing bicycle and pedestrian plans. Metropolitan Planning Organizations
(MPOs) and individual communities are also beginning to respond to the mandates
and opportunities of the ISTEA legislation.
Together, these events offer strong encouragement for the future of bicycling
and walking transportation in the United States. As stated on the cover of a
recent brochure produced by the Bicycle Federation of America, "There has
never been a better time to promote bicycling than now."
TEA-21 Funding Sources for Bicycle and Pedestrian Projects
Bicycle and pedestrian projects are broadly eligible for funding from almost
all the major Federal-aid highway, transit, safety, and other programs. Bicycle
projects must be "principally for transportation, rather than recreation,
purposes" and must be designed and located pursuant to the transportation
plans required of States and Metropolitan Planning Organizations.
National Highway System funds may be used to construct bicycle
transportation facilities and pedestrian walkways on land adjacent to any highway
on the National Highway System, including Interstate highways.
Surface
Transportation Program (STP) funds may be used for either the construction
of bicycle transportation facilities and pedestrian walkways, or non-construction
projects (such as maps, brochures, and public service announcements) related
to safe bicycle use and walking. The Transportation Equity Act for the 21st
Century (TEA-21) adds "the modification of public sidewalks to comply with
the Americans With Disabilities Act" as an activity that is specifically
eligible for the use of these funds.
Ten percent of each State's annual STP funds are set aside for Transportation
Enhancement Activities (TEAs). The law provides
a specific list of activities that are eligible TEAs and this includes "provision
of facilities for pedestrians and bicycles, provision of safety and educational
activities for pedestrians and bicyclists," and the "preservation
of abandoned railway corridors (including the conversion and use thereof for
pedestrian and bicycle trails)."
Another 10 percent of each State's STP funds are set aside for the Hazard
Elimination and Railway-Highway Crossing programs, which address bicycle
and pedestrian safety issues. Each State is required to implement a Hazard Elimination
Program to identify and correct locations that may constitute a danger to motorists,
bicyclists, and pedestrians. Funds may be used for activities including a survey
of hazardous locations and for projects on any publicly owned bicycle or pedestrian
pathway or trail, or any safety-related traffic-calming measure. Improvements
to railway-highway crossings "shall take into account bicycle safety."
Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program funds
may be used for either the construction of bicycle transportation facilities
and pedestrian walkways, or non-construction projects (such as maps, brochures,
and public service announcements) related to safe bicycle use.
Recreational Trails Program funds may be used for all kinds of
trail projects. Of the funds apportioned to a State, 30 percent must be used
for motorized trail uses, 30 percent for non-motorized trail uses, and 40 percent
for diverse trail uses (any combination).
Provisions for pedestrians and bicyclists are eligible under the various categories
of the Federal Lands Highway Program in conjunction
with roads, highways, and parkways. Priority for funding projects is determined
by the appropriate Federal Land Agency or tribal government.
National Scenic Byways Program funds may be used for "construction along
a scenic byway of a facility for pedestrians and bicyclists."
Job Access and Reverse Commute Grants are available to support projects, including
bicycle-related services, designed to transport welfare recipients and eligible
low-income individuals to and from employment.
High-Priority Projects and Designated Transportation Enhancement Activities
identified by TEA-21 include numerous bicycle, pedestrian, trail, and traffic-calming
projects in communities throughout the country.
Federal Transit Program Title 49 U.S.C. (as amended by TEA-21) allows the Urbanized
Area Formula Grants, Capital Investment Grants and Loans, and
Formula Program
for Other Than Urbanized Area transit funds to be used for improving bicycle
and pedestrian access to transit facilities and vehicles. Eligible activities
include investments in "pedestrian and bicycle access to a mass transportation
facility" that establishes or enhances coordination between mass transportation
and other transportation.
TEA-21 also created a Transit Enhancement Activity program with a 1-one percent set-aside of Urbanized Area Formula
Grant funds designated for, among other things, pedestrian access and walkways,
and "bicycle access, including bicycle storage facilities and installing
equipment for transporting bicycles on mass transportation vehicles."
Highway Safety Programs Pedestrian and bicyclist safety remain priority areas
for State and Community Highway Safety Grants funded
by the Section 402 formula grant program. A State is eligible for these grants
by submitting a Performance Plan (establishing goals and performance measures
for improving highway safety) and a Highway Safety Plan (describing activities
to achieve those goals).
Research, development, demonstrations, and training to improve highway safety
(including bicycle and pedestrian safety) is carried out under the Highway Safety Research and Development (Section 403) program. (A Summary of Bicycle
and PedestrianProvisions of the Federal-Aid
Program, FHWA-PD-98-049, 1998).
TEA-21 provides a variety of funding opportunities for on-road bike lanes,
trails, sidewalks, and bridges that accommodate bicycles and pedestrians.
1.6 Public Support for Bicycling and Walking
Regardless of the commitment of Federal, State, and local governments to bicycling
and walking transportation, and regardless of the "walkability" or
"bicycleability" of our cities and towns, the full potential of bicycling
and walking as transportation modes will not be realized if the public is unwilling
to recognize and embrace them as viable transportation options. Both government
and the private sector can play key roles here by working to increase public
awareness of bicycling and walking and actively promoting their use. Programs
to increase employee use of non-motorized transportation, including innovative
Transportation Demand Management plans, police-on-bikes, and U.S. Postal Service
employees on bicycles, all can help to legitimize non-motorized transportation.
Source: Harris Poll Commissioned by Rodale Press, Inc., 1991.
If recent survey results are any indication, the public already strongly supports
increased travel options. The 1991 Harris Poll cited earlier showed that 46
percent of adults age 18 and older - 82 million Americans - had ridden a bicycle
in the previous year. Of these:
- 46% stated they would sometimes commute to work by bicycle if safe bicycle
lanes were available;
- 53% would if they had safe, separate, designated paths on which to ride;
- 45% would if their workplace had showers, lockers, and secure bicycle storage;
and
- 47% would if their employer offered financial or other incentives. (Pathways
for People, 1992).
Similarly, 59 percent of the respondents reported that they would walk, or
walk more, if there were safe, secure designated paths or walkways, and 55 percent
would if crime were not a factor. Overall, 5 percent of respondents reported
that either walking or bicycling was their primary means of transportation;
but given adequate facilities, 13 percent would prefer to meet their transportation
needs by walking or bicycling. Respondents also indicated that they want their
government to enhance their opportunities to walk and bicycle. (Pathways
for People, 1992)
Another indication of the public's desire for increased opportunities to bicycle
and walk can be found in the overwhelmingly positive responses to the Federal
Register notice soliciting comments for the National Bicycling and Walking
Study. Most of the respondents clearly indicated a desire to walk and bicycle
more if appropriate facilities were provided. (National Bicycling and Walking Study, FHWA-PD-94-023, 1991)
1.7 Transportation and Planning Trends
Thus far, this lesson has described the challenges and potential for increasing
non-motorized travel in the United States. Renewed interest and financial support
for bicycling and walking has led to improvement projects in nearly every city
in the country. Although progress is slow and the problems often seem insurmountable,
several trends in transportation planning point to a promising future for bicycling
and walking. This section presents an overview of current trends and their implications
for non-motorized travel, with examples from communities throughout the United
States.
- New land use, transportation, and environmental trends point to a promising
future. In general, both the public and the professional community are becoming
dissatisfied with the status quo. New energy, funding, and political support
are being given to programs that reduce reliance on the private motor vehicle
and encourage bicycling and walking. Here are a few examples of these trends:
- Seattle, Portland, San Diego, and Los Angeles move to develop effective
transit systems.
- Voters in Los Angeles taxed themselves heavily to start rebuilding
the once-famous transit system. Initial sections are open and operating.
- Trips into downtown Seattle have shifted heavily toward use of transit
and bicycling, with improved facilities and strong support from political
bodies. Increases in walking trips from the nearby Capital Hill District
are also reported.
- San Diego, starting with $60 million, gained high-volume ridership
overnight when it introduced its 16-mile "Red Line" and
the Tijuana Trolley.
- Portland is reclaiming views of mountain landmarks with successful
introduction of an extensive system of buses and light rail.
- Many other cities, including Honolulu, Orlando, and Minneapolis
are now increasing emphasis on transit and transit planning.
- Traditional Neighborhood Design (TND) and Neo-Traditional Town
Planning are hot trends on the planning scene.
Neo-traditional planning is a topic of debate and disagreement within
the planning community. Advocates of "traditional" plans propose
a nostalgic approach. They look to historic designs for small communities
where traffic was light, people knew their neighbors, and land use encouraged
walking and bicycling.
A great deal of experimentation is taking place in the United States
at this time. Florida alone has 15 neo-traditional communities on the
drawing board. Projects to retrofit existing neighborhoods in conformance
with traditionalist precepts have been proposed in Bellingham, Washington;
Stuart, Florida; and projects in California, Texas, Alaska, Virginia,
Maryland, North Carolina, and Georgia. See Lesson 6 for more information
on this concept.
- Traffic-calming strategies can reduce the speed of and emphasis
on motor vehicles.
Traffic calming employs physical measures to slow down motorists through
changes to the horizontal and vertical alignment of the road and giving
greater design priority to pedestrians, bicyclists, and community amenities.
Traffic-calming measures are becoming standardized in communities throughout
the country. See Lesson 11 for a full explanation of the fundamental traffic
calming techniques.
- Transportation Demand Management (TDM) proves popular.
Whereas the early 1980s saw engineers experimenting with ways to push
more vehicles through an existing and expanding transportation network,
the trend in the 1990s has turned toward getting people to make fewer
single-occupant auto trips. Using the TDM concept, employers, government
agencies, and others direct their energies into convincing the public
to use the auto for solo trips less and less. This is done through pricing
incentives (recouping the true cost of parking, for example); subsidies
to more efficient transportation modes; helping people overcome perceived
hurdles; pushing for improved land use policy; and flexible work hours.
Traditional Neighborhood Design incorporates design features that
encourage walking and bicycling.
Can TDM really work? In Australia, it does. In many ways, Australia
is similar to the United States: highly suburbanized, auto-crazy, with
similar land use patterns and levels of auto ownership. The parallels,
however, only go part way. In Australia, gasoline consumption and trips
per household are half of U.S. figures. What can be learned from this
example? Australian cities, while similar to U.S. cities in many ways,
also have important differences. The following attributes are part of
urban form and transportation systems in Australia:
- Strong neighborhoods with neighborhood centers.
- Neighborhood schools within 1/4-mile walking distance for most children.
- Pedestrian access is required between adjacent neighborhoods.
- Local Area Traffic Management (LATM) providing safe motor vehicle
speeds and operations through neighborhoods.
- Parking that is limited and frequently marketpriced. Only one parking
space per 10,000 square feet of floor area is required in Sydney.
- Convenient transit transfers are provided.
- Transit service is fast and convenient.
- Few freeways go into the Central Business Districts (CBDs); no new
lanes are built on existing freeways.
- Major activities are located in mixed-use centers accessed by a
multi-modal transportation system.
- There is a strong intermodal transportation system.
- Decision-making is flexible and more decentralized than in the United
States; flexible block grants are allowed through general policy.
- Transportation Management Associations (TMAs) and Commuter Assistance
Centers (CACs).
Many cities or regions are setting up fully staffed organizations, with
trained professionals who focus on getting people out of single-occupant
vehicles. Some cities, such as Los Angeles, have dozens of TMAs. Florida
already has 17 such associations with more than 40 expected to start up
over the next several years.
Each association is funded by local government, employers, and others
with a strong interest in reduced parking demand, and future reductions
in traffic-induced transportation costs. Many TMAs and CACs encourage
bicycling and pedestrian/transit trips.
- New tools are available for bicycle and pedestrian programs
A new wave of post-interstate highway construction is surging across America.
A resounding demand by the public, responded to by Congress, has set a dynamic
direction for future transportation planning and construction. The 1991 Intermodal
Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) and the 1998 Transportation
Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21) provided tremendous funding infusions
for bicycle and pedestrian facilities.
- New funding sources have become available.
- State, regional, and local entities will all be involved in determining
the ultimate use of federal transportation funds.
This, in itself, is a hopeful sign for non-motorized transportation.
Agencies, in many cases, have supported, but have not been able to
fund, improved transit, increased choice of transportation modes,
and non-motorized transportation facilities and programs.
Many cities or regions are setting up fully staffed organizations,
with trained professionals who focus on encouraging alternative
transportation.
Enhancement monies.
Ten percent of the total Surface Transportation Program funds are
earmarked for "enhancement" activities. Provision is made
allowing use of these funds for pedestrian, bicyclist, trail, and
preservation programs.
Clean Air Act.
The second generation of the Clean Air Act, passed in 1991, has
put teeth into the original Act and now requires cities with the
poorest air quality records to make significant improvements. Substantial
penalties are specified for non-compliance.
Transit funding is no longer given only token recognition.
Transit programs and intermodal efficiency are emphasized in ISTEA
and TEA-21. Indeed, the term "intermodal," found throughout
the new legislation, reflects a tangible commitment to a balanced
transportation system.
Indirectly, Federal support for transit can benefit bicycling and
walking. People have to walk or ride to and from bus stops and transit
stations. Consideration is being given to improving access to transit
and encouraging adoption of local policy, standards, and ordinances
that can result in better conditions. Similarly, more and more cities
are accommodating bicycles on buses, ferries and trains. Phoenix,
Arizona has a model program. The intermodal emphasis encourages
such linkages, along with provision of bicycle lockers, shower facilities,
"loaner" or low-priced rental bikes at downtown transit
stations, and benefits for bicyclists.
Environmental emphasis.
Cities with the lowest air quality and largest populations are allocated
a portion of the federal transportation funds for reduction of auto
emissions. Since the greatest reductions will be through displacement
of single-occupant vehicle trips, funds may be used for related
non-motorized transportation programs.
- Other Environmental Improvement Funds.
Other Federal and State legislation has been enacted to further improvement
of air quality, noise reduction, water quality, and other pollution
(e.g., hazardous wastes). Substantial funding is available.
- Growth Management Act(s).
A number of States are considering requirements for urban containment,
urban infill, implementation of TDM strategies, and other measures
to reduce urban sprawl and associated costs. Florida recently entered
the second phase of its nationally recognized growth management legislation.
TDM practices are now encouraged on additional highway and roadway
miles. Developers in Florida have supported this new policy, since
TDM has proven to be less expensive than the cost of building additional
traffic lanes.
- Other legislation.
California has passed a series of initiatives aimed at not only cleaning
up the air, but also at significant alterations of transportation
habits. California businesses must now achieve a significant reduction
in auto trips or pay substantial fines. Other States, such as Oregon
and Washington, are studying these measures and may propose similar
legislation. The California policy is expected to benefit bicyclists,
pedestrians, and transit users, since use of alternative transportation
modes is encouraged.
The availability of bike lockers at rail stations is important
to encourage commuting.
- New, federally sponsored research shows increased support for bicycling
and walking programs.
Led by the Federal Highway Administration and National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration, the Federal government has initiated a broad range
of research and other studies addressing bicycle and pedestrian transportation.
The National Bicycling and Walking Study provides a comprehensive look
at ways to encourage bicycling and walking in the United States. The Study
mirrors the ISTEA legislation.
The Study is also expected to have a significant influence on State and
local policy. Combined with other research now underway. It can be expected
that our knowledge about many aspects of pedestrian and bicycle transportation
will be greatly advanced over the next few years.
- Professional associations are increasingly prowalking and pro-bicycling.
Associations such as the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO), Transportation Research Board (TRB), the Institute
of Transportation Engineers (ITE), and the American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE) are putting more and more positive energy into support of bicycle
and pedestrian transportation.
They are working to educate their members about design planning construction
practices and related issues. ITE, for example, has published manuals
on traffic calming, supports traditional neighborhood design and is adding
new chapters on walking and bicycling solutions to its major handbook
and other publications. New organizations are forming to focus exclusively
on alternative transportation systems.
In addition, engineers and planners in the bicycle and pedestrian field
have established their own professional organization - The Association
of Pedestrian and Bicycle Professionals (APBP). This new organization
promotes excellence in the emerging professional discipline of pedestrian
and bicycle transportation.
- Greater public involvement in decisionmaking is encouraged.
It is expected that the public will become much more involved in transportation
planning and policy, especially on the local and State levels. ISTEA and
a general trend toward citizen activism are leading to the formation of
bicycle advisory councils (BACs) and pedestrian advisory councils (PACs)
in many areas. Combined with existing community organizations, clubs,
and advocacy networks, they will play increasing roles in transportation
and land use decisions.
- Facilities on greenways and other recreation areas can help meet transportation
needs.
ISTEA and TEA-21 allow use of highway funds for bicycle and pedestrian
facilities that have transportation purposes. Today, only purely recreational
facilities, such as closed-loop trails that have no possible transportation
use, are excluded from funding consideration.
The availability of funds for recreation transportation facilities dovetails
with the increasing emphasis and funding for preservation and enhancement
of greenbelts and with the "Rails to Trails" movement utilizing
abandoned rail rights-of-way. State initiatives, such as Arizona's Heritage
Fund add to the pot by funding trails and other recreation, preservation,
and conservation projects. In some cities, trail systems provide continuous,
scenic and gradeseparated access to most major destinations using canal
banks, flood control channels, river corridors, parks, and greenbelts.
Built to the current design standards, these trails can serve many types
of users for many different trip purposes.
- Voters having repeatedly shown their support for bicycle and pedestrian
facilities.
Here are a few examples:
- Seattle voters recently approved a $120 million bond issue for purchasing
land and constructing urban trails. The measure passed with the greatest
voter turnout for any election and won by the widest margin in decades.
- In Pinellas County, Florida, with the backing of the Friends for
the Pinellas Trail, voters approved a controversial, 10-year, $100
billion transportation bill. The approval margin was razor thin. Neighboring
Hillsborough County (Tampa) rejected a similar bill-also by a narrow
margin. All the local analysts gave credit for the Pinellas win to
the citizens group that backed the trail and encouraged voter turnout.
- In 1990, Arizona voters gave approval by almost a two-to-one margin
to the Arizona Heritage Fund. This was an exceptionally strong showing,
considering the fact that only 3 of the 13 ballot propositions that
year were approved. Of the 3, the Heritage Fund received the most
votes. The Fund takes about $20 million annually from lottery profits
and divides it between State Parks and the Arizona State Game and
Fish Departments.
The money is used for parks, trails, preservation of historic and cultural
sites, and wildlife conservation. About $500,000 was allocated for trails
in the first funding year. Among criteria used in selecting projects
for funding are the trail's accommodation of a variety of users and
its potential to provide linkages to other trails and destinations.
- Pedestrians are increasingly being considered in planning and design.
With the encouragement of planning gurus such as William Whyte (City -
Rediscovering the Center, The Social Life of Small Urban
Spaces) and the late Donald Appleyard (Livable Streets), a generation
of professionals sympathetic to the need for "a sense of place,"
"people places," "activated streets," and "livable
cities" has come of age. Old buildings are being preserved.
Once-deteriorating downtowns are being rediscovered and revitalized, often
with a strong pedestrian emphasis. Design review requirements and urban design
guidelines are being incorporated into ordinances and adopted into planning
documents.
The roles that engineers, planners, architects, and landscape architects can
play in creating streets, plazas, parks, and other public spaces that offer
amenity, interest, variety, and a feel for the special, unique qualities of
a given city are starting to be appreciated.
The need for coordination, for working with other professional disciplines
as well as with citizen groups, city maintenance departments, police officers,
school officials, and others is being realized and addressed in the planning
process. To create pedestrian and bicyclist-friendly cities takes cooperation
and a "big picture" approach backed by the power to put forward
adoptable recommendations with policy or regulatory status.
Revitalization of America's downtowns is occurring throughout the country.
- Livable cities' success stories.
Although the "livable cities" movement is still in its early
days, many U.S. cities have already logged considerable accomplishments:
- Washington, D.C., had the vision of transforming the city into
an inviting pedestrian environment. The effort took years. It was complex
and, ultimately, rewarding. Today, our Nation's Capital owes much of
its success to coordinating the opening of the Metro system with construction
of pedestrian facilities. A special police force was hired for security
and parking control. Fast-moving traffic on key streets was slowed through
implementation of a series of strategies that included eliminating one-way
streets. Right turns on red lights were reinforced through pro-pedestrian
policy. On some streets, all traffic in a given direction is now required
to turn.
Sidewalks were widened and given decorative pavement in many cases.
Medians were added. All this occurred over the past 15 years. The result
is dramatic. The pedestrian improvements are complemented by our Nation's
best and most complete transit system. All this took place in a city
where 90 percent of the work force commutes in and out daily.
- Boston - Harvard Square. For the first time in its history,
Harvard Square has been redesigned as a major public gathering place.
Transit vehicles, which were below ground 20 years ago and later brought
up to the surface, were retreated once again to quiet underground busways
enhanced with public art. Although the Square, from a pedestrian viewpoint,
is not perfect, it represents a splendid re-dedication of land to public
use by pedestrians. Other commons (with underground parking), Newberry
Street, and Faneuil Hall Marketplace provide exemplary pedestrian environments.
- Savannah, Georgia and Charleston, South Carolina. Still in
the process of rebuilding following widespread destruction by hurricane
Hugo, these cities offer powerful examples of good pedestrian planning
and public spaces. Airy waterfront piers, one with citizen porch swings
that are so popular that they never stop swaying, show a positive outgrowth
from a devastating natural disaster.
- Honolulu, Hawaii - Kalakala Street, Waikiki. One of the most
dramatically transformed streets, Kalakala has gone from noisy, sooty
gray ugliness to a bright, breezy, and fragrant street with a 50/50
ratio of automobile to pedestrian space. The street is lively, the scale
is right, and people throng.
- Victoria, Vancouver, Canada. It's only a few miles from the
U.S. border and it's an ideal downtown. The character of historic streets
has been recaptured. Alleys create a fine-grained network that enables
pedestrians to avoid many intersections. In the heart of it all is a
mall that contributes to the ambiance, rather than detracts from it.
At the insistence of the public, mall developers were required to provide
groundlevel retail, to pave the streets with rich detail, and to design
for interaction and architectural interest. The result works beautifully.
- Portland, Oregon - Pioneer Square. This active downtown gathering
space is paved with inscribed bricks sponsored by citizens at $35 a
piece. The Square is an ideal place to see and be seen. Its form creates
an irregular, theatrical setting with a variety of elevations, vantage
points, perches, and perspectives. It's an informal urban theater, with
lunchtime crowds creating their own entertainment. There is a strong
link to the city's transit system, which approaches the Square via a
transit mall where cars are allowed, but not encouraged. Nearby, is
Freeway Park, with its famous Halprin sculpture fountain.
- There is a new emphasis on bicyclist and pedestrian safety and on
safety-related research. Nationally, pedestrians and bicyclists account
for 14 to 15 percent of all traffic fatalities. In urban areas, this figure
is even higher. As more and more people walk and ride bicycles, it is
important that safety improvements and programs keep pace.
Accordingly, the Federal Highway Administration and National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration have dedicated funds to identifying and prioritizing
bicycle and pedestrian research needs. Research projects are being carried
out by a team headed by the University of North Carolina's Highway Safety
Research Center.
- The need to train professionals about bicycling and walking has been
recognized.
Traffic engineers and urban planners rarely receive adequate training
related to non-motorized transportation. Only one out of a hundred highway
professionals has taken a college course on nonmotorized transportation
and these courses were offered in overseas colleges. None are offered
in the United States on a regular basis. The planner or engineer who today
is being told to go out there and make things right for bikes and pedestrians
has to rely on personal experience, courses such as this one, self-education,
and luck.
This is a global problem. Recent Chinese transportation reports and magazine
articles, written in a country where fewer than one in 10,000 people travel
by car, address ONLY motorized transportation modes. The word "bicycle"
is not mentioned. Worldwide, the status of the automobile has dominated
professional practice.
Bicycles are often seen as having low status, associated with the poorer
classes or underdeveloped nations. Even in bicycle-friendly Copenhagen
and Amsterdam, pedestrian and bicycle officials talk about difficulties
in dealing with planners and engineers who think only in terms of motorized
solutions.
The Federal Highway Administration has given high priority to training
professionals involved in bicycle and pedestrian transportation. Development
of college-level courses and other training, combined with future revision
of professional reference documents and activities planned by organizations
such as the American Society of Civil Engineers and the American Planning
Association will, over time, make professionals better-equipped to deal
with nonmotorized transportation modes.
- There is a new awareness of risk management strategies related to
bicycling and walking.
The courts are becoming de facto bicycle and pedestrian facility
designers. There continue to be very sizeable settlements ($2 to $15 million)
against government entities that neglect the basics of design for bicycles
and pedestrians.
Although some highway professionals and city officials now are reluctant
to build new facilities for fear of legal action, they should be aware
that they can also be sued for failure to take action.
Many court settlements are for failure to act, failure to maintain, failure
to operate properly, failure to perform to accommodate all users of existing
streets, highways, and paths. The transportation professional with no
formal training in walking and bicycling accommodation is put at a serious
disadvantage.
- The public involvement process is becoming more inclusive.
Design and research have historically focused on vocal, adult citizens.
Children, the elderly, the poor, and the disabled seldom stand up at city
council or planning commission hearings to advocate policy and improvements
that could make it easier for them to get around.
Children account for a large percentage of bicycle and pedestrian crashes
and yet relatively little sophisticated crash research was done in the
United States until adults took to bicycling and walking, started to get
hurt, and complained about it. Children are not involved in decisionmaking.
They don't know who to complain to. They can't drive. Their writing skills
are still developing. They must depend on others for resources and transportation.
The same basic situation can be applied to the elderly, the poor, and
the disabled. Their numbers are increasing. They are dependent on walking
and bicycling for mobility. They are disproportionately at-risk when dealing
with traffic and in potentially hazardous situations. ALL must be considered
in research, planning, and design.
- The bicycle and pedestrian industries are becoming more aware of
the need to educate and to deliver safety messages.
The bicycle and pedestrian associations and industries have historically
had little active involvement in safety and education programs. With a
few notable exceptions, bicycle manufacturers and support industries,
safety associations, and others who should know better have not been proactive
in efforts to promote safety.
Advertisements and bicycle safety films show bicyclists wearing helmets.
Increasingly, bicycle dealers provide information about safety, maintenance,
and ways to develop good riding skills. Some offer training and literature,
and refer bicyclists to clubs where they can ride with experienced bicyclists
and become part of the "bicycle culture" of the community.
The elderly, children, and the poor are the least likely to be accommodated
by today's dominant transportation modes.
- The U.S. bicycle and pedestrian programs - getting back on track.
The 1970s saw a surge of funding for bicycle programs and research. A
few projects were completed. Starting in the 1980s, however, almost 100
percent of the safety money was channeled into a few, auto-related areas.
In 1988, Florida canvassed all 50 Governor's Highway Safety Representatives
in the United States and leaders in State departments of transportation.
It was found that all of them felt that there was not a pedestrian problem
and, therefore, there was no need to do anything about it. One said, "There
is no money for funding - so how can there be a problem?" In the
1980s, more than 90,000 pedestrians and bicyclists were killed.
During this time, few States spent money on bicycle and pedestrian crash-reduction
programs, even though a full decade of research from the 1970s pointed
out the need and showed how to approach solutions.
Fortunately, bicycle and pedestrian transportation is experiencing a resurgence
of interest, funding, and research. Lessons learned over the past 20 years
are being tested and applied to new thinking about design, education,
enforcement programs, and the positive roles bicycling and walking can
play in realigning our thinking about cities.
There is increasing awareness of the need to improve air quality, to decrease
traffic congestion, and to revive a sense of "community." People
are giving a fresh look at the efficiency and pleasure of leaving the
car in the garage and heading out on two wheels or two feet to go about
their business. As transportation tends toward the human scale, a new
urban form-finer-grained, more richly detailed, and community-oriented-
will evolve. In time, the new transportation will build a new kind of
city.
This course session has introduced many issues, ideas, attitudes, and
planning tools. It presents a broad-brush overview. Additional detail
on many of these topics are explored in depth during other training course
sessions.
1.8 Exercise: A Pictorial Essay
Part 1
Take photographs of both good and bad locations to bicycle and walk in your
community. Photographs can document conditions in several locations or within
one particular development (commercial or residential). Your photo log should
capture the overall environment (such as streetscape), specific barriers and/or
good features, and general land wuse relationships to the transportation facility.
Prepare a short write-up for each photograph explaining the problems or positive
features you inventoried.
Part 2
Using the specific locations you documented in Part 1, conduct an evaluation
of engineering issues related to the following facility design aspects:
- Need for bicycle/pedestrian facilities-How would you establish the need
for facilities (either existing or proposed improvements)? What data would
you collect? What type of analysis procedures or comparisons would be useful
in assessing need? If you documented existing facilities in your photographs,
how would you evaluate effectiveness to those detractors that would suggest
that money spent on facilities for pedestrian and bicycles is a waste of resources.
Please develop some proposed guidelines, within the context of effective and
reasonable public policy, for use by a local agency in addressing issues related
to bicycle and pedestrian facilities.
- Incorporation of needed facilities in new design -Describe how any deficiencies
you noted in your photo logging exercise could have been addressed if pedestrian
and/or bicycle facilities were included in the original design and construction.
Tabulate and evaluate the associated impacts. If you documented existing designs,
describe and quantify impacts associated with accommodating pedestrians and/or
bicycles in the facility(ies) you photographed.
- Incorporation of needed facilities in retrofit design-Assuming that you
documented deficient locations for pedestrian and bicycle travel, list and
describe possible ways to rectify and retrofit existing facilities so that
these locations can more readily accommodate pedestrian and/or bicycle travel
modes.
In time, the new transportation era will build a new kind of city.
1.9 References
Donald Appleyard, Livable Streets, University of California Press,
Berkeley, 1981.
Allan Jacobs, Great Streets, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
1993.
The National Bicycling and Walking Study: Transportation Choices for a Changing
America, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
FHWA-PD-94- 023. Available through the FHWA Report Center, 9701 Philadelphia
Court, Unit Q, Lanham, Maryland. Telephone: 301-577- 0818, fax: 301-577-1421.
William H. Whyte, City-Rediscovering the Center, Doubleday, New York,
1988.